Constructivist Learning

There is no single theory that can be described as 'constructivism', only a number of principles that have been promoted by various authors and in some cases extended. However, this evolution has not changed the original concepts nor added much to their formulations.

Arguably there are four principles:

• Learning involves the active construction of personal conceptual knowledge by the learner building new knowledge on existing knowledge. (Piaget, 1971, Bruner, 1966, Jonassen, 1991).
  
  
• Learning is reflective and builds on and also develops the learner's existing knowledge by identifying concepts (Bruner, 1966, Ausubel, 1968). In this respect it benefits from multiple views of the subject (DUffy, 1991, Beishuizen, 1992, Koschmann, 1994, Jacobson, 1995).
  
  
• Learning is facilitated by authentic activity relevant to the situation in which it will be applied (Brown, 1989, Honebin, 1993, Koschmann, 1994). It is a process in which the application of knowledge reinforces it and develops skills.
  
  
• Learning requires personal contact and social interaction between learner and tutor and between learners (Vygotsky, 1978, Cole, 1993).
  

In fact, constructivsm has become a term that is more generally associated with a particular pedagogical approach to teaching, and as such, it is just one of several possibilities. One view is that there are associative, constructivist and situative approaches (JISC, 2004) while a more common view refers to behaviorist, cognitivist and constructivist learning (Wikipedia, 2011). However, in many respects these approaches need not be mutually exclusive. In some respects they overlap and merge (Gagne, 1985) and all of them can be used at different levels and in different contexts. Typically, the behavioral approach is used for entry level studies where foundation knowledge has to be acquired, the cognitivist approach at more advanced levels where a broader conceptual understanding is required and a more constructive approach at the professional level where an open minded, exploratory attitude may be required. In that case it is worth exploring the idea that there is only one approach to teaching and it is constructivist but adaptive to local conditions.

 

The Learning Process

For the practitioners, that is, the subject experts tasked with teaching their subject, the first concern is not how the process will be carried out but how the content will be presented to facilitate its learning. This applies to teaching in the lecture theatre, in books and on the internet. Their first concern is the subject matter then, perhaps, they might design some activities to motivate the learning.

In this respect the pedagogical theories offer little support, mainly because they are so abstract. However, some help may be obtained from studies of the actual learning process that takes place in the learner's mind. This has been the subject of considerable evidence-based research and is very well documented by Clark and Mayer (Clark, 2008). This is a book that barely mentions the word 'pedagogy' but reaches conclusions about how people learn and therefore how they should be taught that are quite similar to the constructivist principles. They also support the pattern that has been described in various learning cycles such as that of Kolb (Kolb, 1984), which are informed by constructivist theory.

Opinions may vary on how to compress the content of a complete book into a few principles. It is fairly clear that there should be three of them but the terminology may have to be flexible. What is clear, however, is that in general, new knowledge is constructed or added to existing knowledge in a process that requires memorization, understanding and use. So, with a backward look at the constructivist principles, we can recognize three separate learning processes:

• Information - in which new information is memorized.
  
  
• Comprehension - in which the new information is understood, by reflection or from multiple views.
  
  
• Application - in which the new knowledge is applied to consolidate knowledge and test its authenticity..

Thus, a behaviorist teaching strategy might be delivered as a cycle of information and application to develop a knowledge base. A cognitivist approach might use information and comprehension to target reflective practice and knowledge building with suitably stimulating objects. A constructivist approach might use comprehension and application, perhaps in the form of a discussion. Also, it is clear that constructivist principles that comprehension, which is often the most difficult aspect, may be promoted by reflection and/or multiple views.

What has got lost, however, is the fourth principle that declares the need for social interaction. The apparent reason for this is that the first three principles are directly related to the intrinsic learning process and therefore of a more fundamental nature. Social interaction can be seen as an alternative way of implementing the first three principles in addition to the more didactic approach that is embedded in learning materials. Since our present concern is with the latter, social interaction is not relevant.

 

Construction of Knowledge

So it is suggested here that the design of teaching methods, books and internet learning materials might simply be informed by the basic principle that learning involves the construction of subject knowledge by three learning process comprising information, comprehension and application. Moreover, these are not separate processes but interdependent and overlapping. So, the subject content should be presented (in didactic teaching) or accessed (in independent learning) in a way that employs all three processes in whatever is the most effective combination. Learning material should provide accurate, clear information that can be associated with and built on existing knowledge and reinforced in an iterative cycle that includes explanation and practice. The overall process can be described as the construction of knowledge - but whose knowledge?

The argument presented here is that what is constructed is less the personal knowledge of the learner than the accumulated knowledge of the subject area, as interpreted by teacher (or the instructor or author). This appears to contradict the first principle of constructivism listed above but, in fact, what it actually does is present the viewpoint of the teacher. Since the publication of learning materials does not usually involve much interaction between the teacher and the learner the process can be regarded as one of constructive teaching.

This construction applies to a complete course or book and also to the internal structure, that is, the sequence of chapters and of the topics within them. All three levels of this hierarchy require that knowledge construction proceeds on the basis of entry requirements and exit achievements with some sort of cognitive step between. At the course level, this is a standard part of course design. But, at a lower level of granularity, practitioners often have divergent views on what is the best order in which to present their subjects, and books may use a variety of approaches. Also, this is the level at which the actual learning takes place so it is the level at which constructive teaching should be applied.

 

Learning Pathways

It would be useful to have some guiding principles for writing educational material. It would be even better if these principles could be detached from the complex theories of pedagogy and defined in more basic terminology.

The problem can be illustrated by reference to an introductory study of word processing. The prerequisites may be limited to the ability to produce a written document and use a computer to the extent of being able to save and retrieve files. The learning outcome might be the ability to produce and print a simple document. The problem is how best to get from one point to the other. An inspection of a selection of books on word processing (or your own favorite subject) should demonstrate the range of options and the problem. But what is it about a particular treatment of a subject that gets 'five star' approval from the readers?

The proposal here is that the 'best' approach is the one that is the most constructive. It is the pathway to knowledge that involves only intellectual steps that can be accommodated by the intrinsic learning process. The size of these steps might vary from one learner to another and might also depend on the subject but, in general, if the learner is comfortable with them or, more accurately, if the instructor thinks the learner will be comfortable with them, they are of a suitable size. In general the trick is to use the smallest steps that are compatible with easy learning without demotivating the learner. So when you are planning a pathway through a particular topic the rule is to avoid large steps that may not be negotiable in a single learning process. If these are encountered, one strategy is to go for a more indirect approach that requires manageable steps. Another is to invoke additional resources, in the form of technology enhancements or tutorials. Indeed, it is at this point that the need for social interaction may arise.

However, if the plan is to design a free standing learning package then the only recourse is to find the most constructive pathway. For example, in the word processing course, you might start with an overview of the user interface and the basic operations then add more detail in a succession of incremental iterations. Or you might plunge straight into the first menu and its options, then the others in turn. In either case you can use examples, exercises and analogies (although they often require additional knowledge and a conceptual detour) to reduce the sizes of the steps. Examples may be employed to provide further information, exercises to offer intermediate practical applications, and both metaphors and analogies to build concepts. It is not a precise science, of course, but in general the aim should be to minimize the constructive steps without boring the learners with too much repetition. This is where the expertise and experience of the tutor or the author comes into the picture. If you ever come across a point at which a substantial leap in comprehension is required, then you have probably taken the wrong path.

As another example, an important application of constructive teaching is in the introduction of new and difficult concepts. This is not easily described here as such concepts are, by their nature, highly specialized to the subject area. However, in computing, a traditional problem arises with the introduction of program objects. For example, an object may be described as a simulation of a real object such as document or a menu. Alternatively it is often described as a software structure comprising name, attributes and behavior. Or it may be introduced as a small independent program with its own data and functionality. All of these have consequences that are only visible to an experienced software instructor but they could, in principle, be compared on the basis of their constructive steps.

 

Technology

Finally, it should be noted that there are other aspects of the learning process that should be considered in a complete treatment. One of these is the learning technology employed. For example, information can be delivered with nothing more than the spoken word or text. For the conceptual understanding required to construct new knowledge other media such as images, audio and video clips, and animations might be more effective. For applications, real or virtual practice might be more useful than printed exercises, which is also covered very well in Clark and Mayer's book. In general, however, all these aspects can be optimized by reference to the principles of knowledge construction.

So, the question arises as to what role technology may have in the constructive pathway model of teaching and learning. In particular, it would be useful to have some basis for the evaluation of internet technology in the form of both the delivery platforms and multimedia content. The present argument is that both factors should be designed to adhere to the principles outlined above but they also offer new possibilities for supporting the specific learning processes. Memorization, comprehension and application can all be assisted by the ability of these technologies to generate, for example, repetition without demotivation, visual and audio content, vicarious practice and multiple views of difficult concepts. These are not just enhancements offered by internet technology but essential alternatives to the adaptive effects that might otherwise be provided by social interaction.

 

Conclusions

The conclusions are a set of principles that apply to teaching in all its forms, from classroom instruction to the authoring of educational materials. They are that

• Learning is always constructive. It involves the construction of personal knowledge in small increments by information, comprehension and application in preferred combination.
  
  
• Teaching is always constructive. It involves the construction of domain knowledge filtered through that of the teacher and delivers information, explanation and practice in appropriate combination.
  
  
• The most effective strategy for delivering subject content is the shortest pathway that requires constructive steps that are always small enough to be accommodated by the intrinsic learning process
  
  
• Technology and media should be evaluated on the basis of their ability to deliver constructive steps and to consolidate the three aspects of the intrinsic learning process.

 

References

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Beishuizen, J.J. Studying a complex knowledge domain by exploration or explanation, Journal of Computer Assisted Learning Vol 8 No 2, pp 104-117,1992.

Brown, J.S. Collins, A. and Duguid, F. Situated cognition and the culture of learning, Educational Researcher Vol 18 No 1 pp 32-42, 1989.

Bruner, J.S. Toward a theory of instruction, New York: Norton,1966.

Clark, R.C and Mayer, R.E. E-learning and the science of instruction, John Wiley (Pfeiffer), San Francisco, 2008.

Cole, M. and Engestrom, Y. A cultural-historical approach to distributed cognition in Salomen, G. (ed) Distributed Cognitions: psychological and educational considerations, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993

Duffy, T.M. and Jonassen, D.H.Constructivism: new implications for instructional technology? Educational Technology Vol31 No 5 pp 7-12, 1991.

Gagne, R. (1985) The Conditions of Learning, New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.

Honebin, P.C. Duffy, T.M. and Fishman, B.J. Constructivism and the design of learning environments: context and authentic activities for learning in Duffy, T.M.,Lowyk, J.and Jonassen, D.H. (eds)Designing environments for constructive learning, 1993

Jacobson, M.J. and Spiro, R.J. Hypertext learning environments, cognitive flexibility and the transfer of complex knowledge: an empirical investigation, Journal of Educational Computing Research Vol 12 No 5 pp 301-333,1995

JISC, Effective practice with e-learning, workshop series, 2004. Available at  http://www.jisc.ac.uk/whatwedo/programmes/elearning_pedagogy.aspx.

Jonassen, D.H. Objectivism versus constructivism: do we need a new philosophical paradigm? Educational Technology Research and Development Vol 4 No 3 pp 5-14,1991

Kolb, D. Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development, Englewood Cliffs, Prentice-Hall, 1984.

Koschmann, T.D., Myers, A.C., Feltovich, P.J. and Barrows, H.S. Using technology to assist in realising effective learning and instruction: a principled approach to the use of computers in collaborative learning The Journal of Learning Sciences Vol 3 pp 227-264, 1994

Piaget, J. (transl. Rosen, A.) Psychology and epistemology: towards a theory of knowledge. New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1971

Tait, B. Constructive internet based learning, Active Learning,  (pp 3 - 8), CTI Oxford, 1997.

Tait, B. Theory and practice in web based tuition, Research and Innovation in Learning and Teaching, (pp 61 - 71) UeL, 2000.

Vigotsky, L.S. (1978) Mind in Society, Cambridge, MA:Harvard University Press

Wikipedia, Learning theory, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning_theory.